Ducere Est Servire “To Lead is to Serve” THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY SUMMER 2023
1 Volume 2 Summer 2023 Ducere Est Servire “To Lead is to Serve” THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
3 CONTENTS Preface. ......................................................................................................................4 Dr. Mary Nelson, Director, Ph.D. in Leadership Studies Higher Education Leadership, Christian Colleges, and Student Development of Calling...................................................................................................................6 Dr. Layna Evans Civil Discourse, Religion, and American Culture: Thoughts for Christian Leaders...............................................................................22 Dr. Jack Goodyear Women, Leadership, and the Power of the Religious Right....................................31 Amanda Walker Leaders, Leadership, and "Sanctuary": A Focus on Six U.S. Presidents and the Problem of Rest........................................................................................................50 Dr. Michael E. (Mike) Williams, Sr. The Job's a Game: How Game Design Builds Better Teams...................................65 Jaclyn Parrish An Eternal Weight of Glory: Exploring Spiritual Disciplines as Potential Predictors of Resilient Pastoral Leadership.............................................................80 Shay Wood Nolo Episcopari: Leadership Lessons from J.R.R. Tolkien.................................100 Dr. Mark Cook BOOK REVIEWS..........................................................................................................113 DOCTORAL GRADUATES AND DISSERTATIONS 2022-23. ..............119 Ducere Est Servire “To Lead is to Serve” THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY VOLUME 2 (SUMMER 2023)
4 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY Preface Dr. Mary Nelson Director, Ph.D. in Leadership Studies Dr. Adam Wright, president of Dallas Baptist University and alumnus of the Gary Cook School of Leadership, encourages doctoral students during the annual Oxford Institute to actively develop the “life of the mind.” The Cook School of Leadership’s mission is to train Christian scholars, servant leaders, and global thinkers, and the second volume of Ducere Est Servire: The Leadership Journal of Dallas Baptist University reveals the fruit of scholars who do just that. These essays engage in profound ways with the convergence of intellect, faith, and leadership, and provide a compelling representation of the outstanding scholarship produced by students, alumni, and faculty of the Cook School of Leadership. Fittingly, this issue begins with an article that considers a topic at the very heart of DBU’s mission: the role of institutions and leaders of higher education in the cultivation of calling within their students. Dr. Layna Evans, an Ed.D. graduate, examines the specific efficacy of Christian colleges in this crucial pursuit. As Dr. Evans notes, “Colleges provide an ideal environment for identity exploration and possess great potential to foster the development of calling in students” (6). The three essays that follow feature analyses of the intersection of faith, politics, and leadership. Dr. Jack Goodyear, Dean of DBU's College of Humanities and Social Sciences, considers the complexities of Christian political engagement in a polarized culture. Despite the contentious nature of many contemporary debates, Dr. Goodyear reminds readers that “Christians who engage in the political sphere must maintain their faithful witness” (23). Amanda Walker, a doctoral candidate in the Ph.D. program, considers the oft-overlooked historical role of women in the development of the Religious Right in the late
5 20th century—noting that key female leaders “mobilized hundreds of thousands of conservative Christian women to participate in political activism” who continue to influence the election outcomes of today (43). Dr. Michael E. Williams, Sr., DBU's Senior Professor of History, considers the substantive benefits of a recuperative sanctuary in the life of six American presidents and concludes that “if national leaders of the likes of Washington and Lincoln with great emotional intelligence, disciplined minds, and verified abilities to lead necessitated such rest, then so will leaders in other positions of leadership” (61). A fascinating essay by DBU alum Jacklyn Parrish contends that analyzing games can be of great value to leaders—chiefly as illustrative tools for improving leadership processes. She notes that “games, it would seem, are extremely effective systems for directing, managing, and optimizing human action leaders” (65). Ph.D. candidate Shay Wood then considers the cultivation of spiritual disciplines, especially for those within ministry, and the potential they have for developing resilience in leadership (81). In keeping with a practice occurring throughout this volume, Dr. Mark Cook, Associate Professor of Leadership and Biblical Studies, demonstrates the relevancy of multi-disciplinary inquiry in leadership studies. Dr. Cook contemplates the nexus of literature and leadership through the lens of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works. Fiction should not be overlooked by leadership scholars. Rather, “Tolkien’s wisdom reveals how leaders need to be nourished by good stories” (109). Clearly, this robust collection of essays reveals fertile reflections for the “life of the mind.” We pray the essays will stimulate your mind and bless your spirit as you contemplate these wide-ranging aspects of faith and leadership.
6 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY Higher Education Leadership, Christian Colleges, and Student Development of Calling Layna Evans, Ed.D. Dr. Layna Evans (Educational Leadership,'19) is Assistant Vice President for Communications at Dallas Baptist University. (This article is a revised version of her dissertation which was awarded Dissertation of the Year by the Cook School of Leadership in 2022). INTRODUCTION A critical developmental stage occurs between ages 18 to 24 when young adults form a mature identity, seek purpose, and engage in career exploration.1 Dik and Duffy defined calling as a summons originating from an external source to purposeful work, which seeks to serve others.2 Hall and Chandler demonstrated that calling positively impacts an individual's career success by bolstering resilience to overcome barriers to career entry and improving one's ability to navigate career transitions.3 College students often struggle to determine their calling, leaving them vulnerable to poor work and life satisfaction outcomes.4 Higher education has a rich history of supporting students to explore career choices. Colleges provide an ideal environment for identity exploration and possess great potential to foster the development of calling in students.5 By helping students cultivate their calling, colleges better prepare their graduates to be successful after graduation. Americans continue to grow disenchanted with higher education.6 The Pew Research Center reported 57% of Americans surveyed question the value colleges provide their students.7 In a more recent survey, 55% of Americans felt colleges had a positive effect on the country, down from 69% in 2020.8 Once known for developing leaders for the benefit of
7 society, many colleges have shifted to focus on practical career training within the last few decades. The public loses faith in higher education when colleges focus solely on career preparation, especially when unemployment rates rise.9 Clydesdale argued that a resurgence of public support for higher education would require a renewed emphasis on the holistic education of undergraduate students, a recommitment to institutional mission, and prioritizing the development of leaders with a purpose.10 Parks contended America's future depends on engaging young adults in questions of purpose. She warned when colleges do not encourage students to ponder meaning and purpose, students develop a selfcentered, myopic view of the world. They value work only benefiting themselves and their immediate families. However, when colleges expose students to a purpose in life more significant than themselves, students often desire to lead positive change in a global society.11 When students understand their purpose, they engage more academically and graduate to become active citizens with a mindset of benefiting others and tackling society's ills.12 The type of institution may affect how successfully a college fosters the development of purpose in its students.13 Parks claimed colleges could serve as mentoring communities for students, which aid students in developing purpose and identity.14 Thieke conducted a longitudinal study on 153 incoming freshmen at a small religiously-affiliated college and found student-faculty interaction and participation in extracurricular activities were the two factors best predicting improvements within the first year of college toward the development of purpose.15 Martin surveyed those same students in their senior year and found significant gains in the sense of purpose related to faculty interaction, participation in clubs and organizations, and campus environment.16 Thieke and Martin's research indicated questions of meaning cannot be left to career counselors alone. Questions of purpose must be addressed in the whole of the academy as mentoring communities involving students' interactions with faculty and one another as they study, play, and work.17 Chickering and Reisser identified seven institutional factors impacting student development, including institutional size, mission, and studentHIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
8 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY faculty interaction.18 Christian colleges tend to be smaller in size, which provides students with more opportunities for interaction with faculty and participation in extracurricular programs.19 In addition, the missions of Christian colleges often place a greater focus on student development compared to public institutions, and student development initiatives can provide a rich incubator for discussion on calling both inside and outside of the classroom.20 Previous studies demonstrated a correlation between attendance at a Christian college and a higher sense of calling. Phillips and Hunter et al. conducted separate quantitative studies with college students. In both studies, 94% of students attending Christian colleges cited calling as relevant in their career choices.21 The Hunter et al. study also measured the presence of calling in students attending secular institutions at 61%.22 Duffy and Sedlacek conducted a similar study where they found 72% of students at a Mid-Atlantic public institution reported a sense of calling.23 Dik and Duffy's interpretation of calling delineated three primary components of calling: a transcendent summons, deriving purpose from work, and motivation from altruistic values, known as prosocial orientation.24 The current study compared calling presence between college students attending Christian and public institutions across all three dimensions. The current study also assessed students' perceptions of how each type of institution assisted in their development of calling. CALLING AND VOCATION IN CHRISTIAN THOUGHT The terms calling and vocation originate in Christian thought.25 The early church understood calling primarily as the call to the Christian faith.26 Soon after the conversion of Constantine in the ancient period, Christianity became the cultural norm, and a call became synonymous with joining the priesthood or monastery.27 The Latin word, vocatio, means calling and referred to vocations such as the priesthood during the Middle Ages.28 Some religious circles today still employ the term calling to mean joining the priesthood or vocational ministry.29
9 Martin Luther debunked the idea that a call was limited to clergy and contended that calling also applied to all forms of work.30 Stressing God made man for community and relationship, Luther perpetuated the idea that calling applied to all Christians and included a call to faith and service to God and others through their work.31 John Calvin expanded on Luther's view of calling and laid the groundwork for a broader view of calling. Calvin identified calling as the work itself chosen through employing one's talents and abilities in service to God and others.32 Under the Calvinist understanding of calling, all work and leisure activities could be a spiritual act of worship.33 The Puritans adapted the Calvinist concept and made calling and vocation synonymous with the work performed. The Puritan view greatly influenced the understanding of calling in industrialized societies and how we view calling today. Christians' interpretations of calling evolved as society changed, but they rely on a common theology of vocation and agree that God remains the source of the call.34 A longing for purpose and meaning produces a universal human quest.35 Calling gives work and life a sense of purpose. Therefore, a concept of calling exists outside a solely religious context.36 The primary distinction between the Christian and secular understandings of calling concerns the origin of the call.37 Duffy, Allan, Bott, and Dik identified three primary themes within the calling literature explaining the origin of calling: external summons, destiny, and perfect fit.38 External summons included a call from God but also included a higher power, family legacy, or the needs of society. Duffy et al. described destiny as a calling leading to work explicitly meant for an individual. Duffy et al. explained, "fulfilling one's destiny through a calling is not necessarily motivated by a higher power nor is it necessarily externally summoned," but a calling could originate from one's internal voice or motivation.39 The third source of calling examined by Duffy et al. involved finding the perfect fit between an individual's talents and interests and a given profession. In a group of 200 predominantly white professionals, Duffy et al. found participants most frequently cited perfect fit as the source HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
10 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY of their calling, followed by external summons and destiny. Duffy et al. reported a similar focus on perfect fit to understand calling's origin when describing a study done with college students.40 At the core of a modern Christian understanding of calling lies the theology of vocation, which views work as the perfect expression of Christian identity in everyday life. God ordained work as a good endeavor. Work became synonymous with toil after the fall of Adam and Eve.41 Immediately upon expulsion from the Garden of Eden, man sought to regain meaning in his work. Man's attempt to redeem work leads to a desire to find a vocation that gives life purpose and makes a difference in the world.42 God originates the call in the Christian understanding of calling, and others may serve to validate the call.43 Guinness described his personal calling as God's way for him and likened calling to a "beacon ahead of him" and a "fire within him."44 Buechner poignantly described calling as God's direction to "the place where your deep gladness…and the world's hunger meet."45 Dalton similarly defined calling as having "a deep inner conviction that one has a personal destiny that guides life."46 Others echo the depth of a call and its pull toward a God-given purpose of serving God and others.47 Blackaby and Blackaby and Guinness asserted calling comes in two forms: a primary/corporate call and a secondary/personal call.48 The primary call involves the invitation to the Christian faith. God calls an individual to himself in the primary/corporate call, and out of the primary call flows the secondary/personal call.49 The personal call to a vocation stems from the Calvinist understanding of calling. In personal calling, humankind finds individual purpose and lives life in service to God and neighbor through a specific vocation or life role "that works toward an orchestrated master plan."50 Guinness explained, "our secondary calling, considering who God is as sovereign, is that everyone, everywhere, and in everything should think, speak, live and act entirely for him."51 Smith characterized three calls in the life of a Christian: the general, specific, and immediate.52 Like Blackaby and Blackaby and Guinness, Smith described a general call pertaining to salvation.53 Smith's specific
11 call correlates with the second call described by others and relates to a person's vocation, purpose, or mission and how God calls them to serve the world. Smith then adds a third level of calling.54 Smith's immediate call included the daily tasks or responsibilities God directs his children to do. Smith believed the call to a vocation could only be understood in the context of the other two calls. 55 Calling remains a multidimensional construct, and empirical research assessing the concept unilaterally limited the calling research.56 Therefore, Dik et al. developed the Calling and Vocation Questionnaire (CVQ), which includes subscales measuring both the presence of calling and search for calling across the domains of transcendent summons, purposeful work, and prosocial orientation. The development of calling involves an initial quest or search for purpose. Individuals seeking life meaning more readily search for calling.57 Individuals who endorse the presence of calling feel they possess a calling.58 Among 5,000 incoming college students in the Duffy and Sedlacek study, 44% endorsed a presence of calling, while 28% indicated a search for calling.59 Studies demonstrated a positive correlation between presence of calling in college students and life HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING immediate.52 Like Blackaby and Blackaby and Guinness, Smith described a general call pertaining to salvation.53 Smith's specific call correlates with the second call described by others and relates to a person's vocation, purpose, or mission and how God calls them to serve the world. Smith then adds a third level of calling.54 Figure 1. Smith’s three types of Christian calling.
12 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY meaning, meaning in work, religiousness, academic satisfaction, and a commitment to social justice.60 METHODOLOGY The current study employed a nonexperimental quantitative design to measure the presence of calling using the presence of calling subscales of the CVQ coupled with researcher-authored questions about students' perceptions of institutional support of calling development based on the type of institution attended.61 An independent samples t-test examined the presence of calling in students attending Christian institutions compared to those attending public colleges in the United States. A second independent samples t-test compared student perceptions of institutional support for calling development between the two groups. The current study employed a convenience sample of students recruited directly through social media who attended Christian and public institutions in the United States or graduated within the last year. Cohen recommended a minimum sample of 64 students per institutional type to compare calling presence and student perception of institutional influence with a medium effect size and an α = .05.62 A total of 250 students met the criteria and completed the survey. Of those 250 respondents, 87 indicated they attended two-year institutions. All two-year college students who responded attended a public institution. Since no set of two-year college students from Christian colleges existed in the data to compare with the two-year public college student set, only the 163 students who indicated they attended a fouryear institution were included in the study. The current study required students to classify the type of college they attended. The survey defined a Christian college for participants as an institution that discusses content from a Christian perspective in most classes and whose mission includes reference to the Christian faith. The survey defined a public college as a college with no religious affiliation which receives funding from a state government. A total of 74 students said they attended a public college, and 89 indicated they attended a Christian college.
13 RESULTS The results of the first independent samples t-test determined students attending Christian colleges (M = 3.17, SD = .63) showed a significantly higher presence of calling than students attending public colleges (M = 2.90, SD = .50), t(161) = -3.01, p < .05, d = .07). Students attending Christian colleges also reported a significantly higher presence of 9 there was no statistically significant difference between Christian and public college students in the prosocial orientation subscale. Table 1 Presence of Calling Comparison College Type n Mean SD df p Public 74 2.902 .627 161 .003* Christian 89 3.168 .502 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Table 2 Presence of Transcendent Summons Comparison College Type n Mean SD df p Public 74 2.987 .731 161 .001* Christian 89 3.373 .662 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Table 3 Presence of Purposeful Work Comparison College Type n Mean SD df p Public 74 2.764 .783 161 .019* Christian 89 3.026 .632 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Table 4 Presence of Prosocial Orientation Comparison College Type n Mean SD df p Public 74 2.956 .746 161 .153 Christian 89 3.109 .609 HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
14 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY transcendent summons and purposeful work compared to students attending public colleges. Interestingly, there was no statistically significant difference between Christian and public college students in the prosocial orientation subscale. 10 Students attending Christian colleges (M = 3.40, SD = .76) indicated a significantly higher perception their institution helped them develop their calling compared with students attending public colleges (M = 2.70, SD = 1.03), t(132) = -4.78, p < .05, d = .12. Table 5 Student Perception of Institution’s Role in Calling Development College Type n Mean SD df p Public 74 2.703 1.030 161 .001* Christian 89 3.393 .763 Note. * = p ≤ .05 Students were also asked follow-up, yes/no questions regarding their interactions with their institutions as related to their calling development. Respondents answered the following questions. 1. I have had a conversation about calling or purpose with a faculty or staff member at my college. 2. I have attended a class or program at my college that includes content about calling or purpose. 3. I have participated in an internship, study abroad experience, or service opportunity through my college that helped me better understand my calling or purpose. Students attending Christian colleges (M = 3.40, SD = .76) indicated a significantly higher perception their institution helped them develop their calling compared with students attending public colleges (M = 2.70, SD = 1.03), t(132) = -4.78, p < .05, d = .12. Students were also asked follow-up, yes/no questions regarding their interactions with their institutions as related to their calling development. Respondents engaged with the following statements: 1. I have had a conversation about calling or purpose with a faculty or staff member at my college. 2. I have attended a class or program at my college that includes content about calling or purpose. 3. I have participated in an internship, study abroad experience, or service opportunity through my college that helped me better understand my calling or purpose. Figure 2 depicts the percentage of students from each college type who conversed with a faculty or staff member about calling. Figure 3 shows the comparison of students who attended a class or program at their institution with content related to calling, and Figure 4 portrays the
15 or staff member about calling. Figure 3 shows the comparison of students who attended a class or program at their institution with content related to calling, and Figure 4 portrays the percentage of students from each college type whose participation in a service opportunity, study abroad, or internship helped them clarify their calling. Figure 2. Students who conversed with a faculty or staff member about calling. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Public Christian 33.8% (n = 25) 80.9% (n = 72) 12 Figure 3. Students who participated in a class or program with content on calling. Figure 4. Students who participated in an internship, study abroad, or service opportunity sponsored by their college, which helped clarify their calling. The current study provided insight into how students at Christian colleges and those at public colleges perceive their institutions' role in the development of calling. The current study 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Public Christian 48.6% (n = 36) 58.4% (n = 52) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Public Christian 25.7% (n = 19) 82.0% (n = 73) HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
16 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY percentage of students from each college type whose participation in a service opportunity, study abroad, or internship helped them clarify their calling. The current study provided insight into how students at Christian colleges and those at public colleges perceive their institutions' role in the development of calling. The current study examined how an institution can help foster calling in students through factors such as faculty interaction, curriculum, and extracurricular activities such as community service, internships, and study abroad. The results on student perception in the current study hold tremendous implications for higher education leaders in fostering the development of calling in students and leading to improved student career and life outcomes. Christian colleges should embrace their unique features supporting the development of calling and tout them as a competitive advantage. On the other hand, the results indicate public colleges could do more to help students develop calling by encouraging faculty to interact more with students and discuss their calling journeys with them. The presence of calling produces positive life and work outcomes for college students. Students who feel a calling toward a career exhibit greater resilience and higher satisfaction with life and work.63 Results of the current study indicate colleges play a role in students' development of calling through faculty interaction, curriculum, and extracurricular activities such as internships, service opportunities, and study abroad. More colleges have noticed the growing need for meaning and purpose in students' lives.64 As more colleges realize the importance of addressing all aspects of a student's life, calling remains an essential concept for college leaders to consider in their student development programs and curriculum because of its relationship to meaning and purpose.65
17 NOTES 1 Jeffrey J. Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road From the Late Teens Through the Twenties (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004), 9, 65. 2 Bryan J. Dik and Ryan D. Duffy, “Calling and Vocation at Work: Definitions and Prospects for Research and Practice,” The Counseling Psychologist 37, no. 3 (2009): 427. 3 Douglas T. Hall and Dawn E. Chandler, “Psychological Success: When the Career is a Calling,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 26, no. 2 (2005): 155-76. 4 Elizabeth M. Bott and Ryan D. Duffy, “A Two-Wave Longitudinal Study of Career Calling Among Undergraduates: Testing for Predictors,” Journal of Career Assessment 23, no. 2 (2005): 250-64. 5 Larry Braskamp, Lois Calian Trautvetter, and Kelly Ward, “Putting students first: Promoting lives of purpose and meaning,” About Campus 13, no. 1 (2008): 26-32; Arthur W. Chickering and Linda Reisser, Education and Identity, 2nd ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993), 160. 6 Tim Clydesdale, The Purposeful Graduate: Why Colleges Must Talk to Students About Vocation (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2015), 53-56. 7 Pew Research Center, Is College Worth it? (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center Social and Demographic Trends, 2011): 1, http://www. pewsocialtrends.org/2011/05/15/is-college-worth-it 8 Rachel Fishman, Sophie Nguyen, and Louisa Woodhouse, Varying Degrees: New American’s Sixth Annual Survey on Higher Education (Washington, DC: New America, 2022): 5, https://d1y8sb8igg2f8e.cloudfront.net/documents/ Varying_Degrees_2022_2022-07-25_FINAL.pdf 9 JD Solomon, “Reclaiming the higher calling of higher education,” University Business, September 15, 2015. https://universitybusiness.com/ reclaiming-the-higher-calling-of-higher-education/ (accessed December 29, 2022). 10 Clydesdale, 53-56. 11 Sharon Daloz Parks, Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Purpose, and Faith, 2nd ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2011): 201. HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP, CHRISTIAN COLLEGES, AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
18 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 12 Clydesdale, xvii; Chickering and Reisser, 143. 13 Chickering and Reisser, 268-69. 14 Parks, 204. 15 William S. Thieke, “Developmental Change in Freshmen Students: Validating Chickering’s Theory of Student Development,” (paper presentation, Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Tucson, AZ, November 10-13, 1994), 6-14. 16 Linda M. Martin, “The Relationship of College Experiences to Psychosocial Outcomes in Students,” Journal of College Student Development 41, no. 3 (2000): 292-301. 17 Parks, 221. 18 Chickering and Reisser, 265. 19 Arnett, 137; Braskamp, Trautvetter, and Ward, 169. 20 Braskamp, Trautvetter, and Ward, 90; Chickering and Reisser, 255-57; Parks, 13-14. 21 Isaac Hunter, Bryan J. Dik, and James H. Banning, “College Students’ Perceptions of Calling in Work and Life: A Qualitative Analysis,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 76, no. 2 (2010): 180; Sheri L. Phillips, “Path models of vocational calling in Christian college students,” Christian Higher Education 10, no. 3-4 (2011): 305. 22 Hunter, Dik, and Banning, 180. 23 Ryan D. Duffy and William E. Sedlacek, “The Salience of Career Calling Among College Students: Exploring Group Differences and Links to Religiousness, Life Meaning, and Life Satisfaction,” The Career Development Quarterly 59, no. 1 (2010): 33. 24 Dik and Duffy, 427. 25 Gordon T. Smith, Courage and Calling: Embracing Your God-Given Potential (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 23; Jeffery A. Thompson and J. Stuart Bunderson, “Research on Work as a Calling…And How to Make It Matter,” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 6 (2019): 422.
19 THE LEADERSHIP OF CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING 26 Malan Nel and Eric Scholtz, “Calling, Is There Anything Special About It?” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 72, no. 4 (2016): 2; William C. Placher, Callings: Twenty Centuries of Christian Wisdom on Vocation (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2005), 23. 27 Os Guinness, The Call (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 33; Hunter, Dik, and Banning, 179; Nel and Scholtz, 2; Placher, 6. 28 Susan VanZanten Gallagher, “Speaking of Vocation in an Age of Spirituality,” Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 39, no. 3 (2007): 34; Stephen Lewis, “Called to shape the future,” in Being Called: Scientific, Secular, and Sacred Perspectives, David Bryce Yaden, Theo D. McCall, and J. Harold Ellens, eds. (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2015), 204. 29 Guinness, 33. 30 Guinness, 43; Hunter, Dik, and Banning, 179; Lewis, 204; Placher, 8. 31 Shirley J. Roels, “Educating for Vocation: Weaving Educational Ideas with Institutional Practice,” Christian Higher Education 16, no. 1-2 (2017): 95. 32 Guinness, 40; Nel and Scholtz, 3. 33 Guinness, 35; Roles, 95. 34 Dik and Duffy, 426. 35 Placher, 1. 36 Dik and Duffy, 426; Guinness, 3. 37 Hall and Chandler, 161. 38 Amy Wrzesniewski, “Callings and the Meaning of Work,” in Being Called, 6. 39 Ryan D. Duffy, Blake A. Allan, Elizabeth M. Bott, and Bryan J. Dik, “Does the Source of Calling Matter? External Summons, Destiny, and Perfect Fit,” Journal of Career Assessment 22, no. 4 (2014): 564-65. 40 Duffy, Allan, Bott, and Dik, 564-65. 41 Duffy, Allan, Bott, and Dik, 565-67. 42 Smith, 21-22.
20 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 43 J. Stuart Bunderson and Jeffery A. Thompson, “The Call of the Wild: Zookeepers, Callings, and the Double-Edged Sword of Deeply Meaningful Work,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 54, no. 1 (2009): 33; Smith, 22-31. 44 Guinness, 4-6. 45 Frederick Buechner, Listening to Your Life (San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1992), 186. 46 Jon C. Dalton, “Career and Calling: Finding a Place for the Spirit in Work and Community,” New Directions for Student Services, no. 95 (2001): 20. 47 Dalton, 20; Guinness, 47; Karen A. Longman, Jolyn Dahlvig, Richard J. Wikkerink, Debra Cunningham, and Candy M. O’Connor, “Conceptualization of Calling: A Grounded Theory Exploration of CCCU Women Leaders,” Christian Higher Education 10, no. 3-4 (2011): 266. 48 Henry T. Blackaby and Richard Blackaby, Spiritual Leadership: Moving People on to God’s Agenda, Revised and Expanded (Nashville, TN: B&H, 2011), 127; Guinness, 13-14. 49 Blackaby and Blackaby, 127; Guinness, 31. 50 Longman, Dahlvig, Wikkerink, Cunningham, and O’Connor, 268; Guinness, 4. 51 Guinness, 31. 52 Smith, 9. 53 Blackaby and Blackaby, 127; Guinness, 31; Smith, 9. 54 Smith, 9. 55 Smith, 9-10. 56 Bryan J. Dik, Brandy M. Eldridge, Michael F. Steger, and Ryan D. Duffy, “Development and validation of the Calling and Vocation Questionnaire (CVQ) and Brief Calling Scale (BCS),” Journal of Career Assessment 20, no. 3 (2012): 244. 57 Dik, Eldridge, Steger, and Duffy, 244, 260, 433. 58 Dik, Eldridge, Steger, and Duffy, 244. 59 Dik and Sedlacek, 35. 60 Duffy and Sedlacek, 35; Dik, Eldridge, Steger, and Duffy, 474.
21 61 Vicki L. Clark and John W. Creswell, Understanding Research: A Consumer’s Guide, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, 2014), 195. 62 Jacob Cohen, "A power primer," Psychological Bulletin 112, no. 1 (1992): 158. 63 Bott and Duffy, 251; Hall and Chandler, 10-11. 64 Alexander W. Astin, Helen S. Astin, and Jennifer A. Lindholm, Cultivating the Spirit: How College Can Enhance Students’ Inner Lives (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2011), 2. 65 Bott and Duffy, 257-258; Duffy and Sedlacek, 35. THE LEADERSHIP OF CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN STUDENT DEVELOPMENT OF CALLING
22 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY Religion, Politics, and Civil Discourse: Thoughts for Christian Leaders Jack Goodyear, Ph.D. Dr. Jack Goodyear is Dean of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences at Dallas Baptist University. In the pluralistic society of America, a multitude of religious and political debates exist, of which individuals and groups alike adamantly defend the stances to which they adhere. Issues facing the United States today are packed with theological or religious arguments and undertones. LGBTQ+ rights, abortion, environmentalism, immigration, refugees, war, terrorism, and poverty are a mere sampling of the issues presented using religious language. In addition, political campaigns, especially recent ones, use religion and faith to secure votes. From Bush naming Jesus as his favorite philosopher, to Kerry in the 2004 election declaring that he was once an altar boy, Obama giving a talk at a Sojourners event and discussing his Christian faith, Trump saying he was “the best thing that ever happened to evangelicals” (bigger than Jesus!), and Biden discussing how his Christian faith guided him through tragedy and loss, government officials are openly and unashamedly sharing their religious leanings. Conservatives and liberals alike have seen ministers enter the political forum both as campaigners and candidates. Although the United States claims to be a nation that separates church and state, the same cannot be said for religion and politics. These two spheres undoubtedly overlap, if not symbiotically coexist, in American culture. While it is questionable as to whether religion should or should not factor into the political arena of America, religion has been a prominent player in the annals of U. S. history. Examples of the ways in which the religious current brought about positive change in America include both the abolition of slavery and the Civil Rights Movement. (Although
23 RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CIVIL DISCOURSE one should note that religious arguments were made on both sides of these historic events in American history.) In both of these instances, the religious voice worked as a prophet to the government, proclaiming the injustice in society. In instances where religion is able to prophetically alter the government, both church and state are strengthened. However, religion has often been negatively influenced by politics. When power is within grasp, convictions are often compromised. While politics needs the morality that religion can provide, religion does not need the power with which politics tempts, as Stephen Carter writes, “A religion that becomes too settled in the secular sphere, happily amassing influence and using it, is likely to lose its best and most spiritual self… .”1 In the world of politics, in order to remain in power one often has to compromise. For religion, compromise leads to loss of purity of doctrine.2 When compromise occurs, political power may be attained or secured, but the church loses its moral standing. Political success is seductive, but it is also fleeting. While polls may popularize a person or a movement today, is the cost of integrity and witness worth it? Christians who engage in the political sphere must maintain their faithful witness. The witness is maintained by insisting upon civility, practicing humility, and remembering that our calling is to be salt and light, not graspers of power. BALANCING POLITICAL DIFFERENCES A recent Pew Research article states: “Partisan polarization remains the dominant, seemingly unalterable condition of American politics. Republicans and Democrats agree on very little—and when they do, it often is in the shared belief that they have little in common.”3 Arthur Brooks describes our negative political polarization as an addiction: America is addicted to political contempt. While most of us hate what it is doing to our country and worry about how contempt coarsens our culture over the long term, many of us still compulsively consume the ideological equivalent of meth from elected officials, academics, entertainers, and some of the news media. Millions actively indulge their habit by participating in the cycle of contempt in the way they treat others, especially on social media. We wish our national debates were nutritious and
24 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY substantive, but we have an insatiable craving for insults to the other side. As much as we know we should ignore the nasty columnist, turn off the TV loudmouth, and stop checking our Twitter feeds, we indulge our guilty urge to listen as our biases are confirmed that the other guys are not just wrong, but stupid and evil.4 It is not necessarily newsworthy to mention that Americans are divided politically. One can easily observe that in social media feeds, on cable news, and in political townhalls. However, this addiction to political contempt is not just in society at large, it also is within the American Christian church. According to a recent LifeWay study, over half of Protestant church attenders desire for the rest of their congregation to share their political beliefs.5 The question to ask: is faith driving politics or politics driving faith? One could argue this has been an ongoing question throughout American history. American Christianity can be divided into two camps: (1) an individualfocused life and (2) a community-focused life. The first group sees the world and views theology through an individual-focused gospel. This group places preeminence on the individual making faith decisions that impact the individual, namely, dealing with individual sin that can only be saved through the individual placing their faith in Jesus. Not only are individuals responsible for their own salvation, but they are also charged with personally spreading the Gospel to other individuals. While being connected to a group of believers is important for this group, ultimately, this is a personal faith, expressed personally. A focus on community and communal faith defines the other group. This group ponders the following: How do our actions corporately impact others? How are we as a people responding to God? How are we bringing the kingdom of God in the here and now? While individual faith is still important, this group addresses systemic issues of the world, recognizing social sins and social callings that must be emphasized. Unfortunately, these groups are not necessarily content with allowing the “other side” to go about their faith practice, but rather, through the politicization of the faith, individually focused Christians and community-focused Christians are often antagonistic toward each
25 RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CIVIL DISCOURSE other. For example, Mark Noll, in his highly acclaimed book, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind, declares that among American Christians who identify as politically conservative, they view “all progressive political or cultural ideas, not as proposals to discuss, but as vicious attacks on everything God-fearing and positive in American history.”6 As Peter Wehner writes: “When the Christian faith is politicized, churches become repositories not of grace but of grievances, places where tribal identities are reinforced, where fears are nurtured, and where aggression and nastiness are sacralized. The result is not only wounding the nation; it’s having a devastating impact on the Christian faith.”7 What happens when a faith is driven more by politics than theology? According to Russell Moore, former President of the Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention and now Editor-in-Chief of Christianity Today, he states, “We now see young evangelicals walking away from evangelicalism not because they do not believe what the church teaches, but because they believe that the church itself does not believe what the church teaches.”8 How should Christians in America respond to the hyper-partisan nature of politics negatively impacting not only our society, but the church as well? IMPLICATIONS Christians of all political backgrounds should be engaged politically. Who can argue with agendas such as the reduction of poverty and the instillation of strong family values? When a Christian approaches one’s faith holistically, one sees the need for both the social and individual realms of the world to be touched by God. While discussing the influence of Christians in American politics, Martin Marty infers the following: “To be winners, they [evangelicals] had to draw other lines, lines that matched the prejudgments if not the prejudices, the practices if not the doctrine, of their members and potential members.”9 As American Christians engage in partisan politics, they have compromised in order to protect the political power they had accumulated, losing their prophetic voices in the process. As Carter makes clear:
26 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY Compromise is what politics demands. In a multireligious democracy, the need for political compromise is so extreme that the putatively religious organization that decides to be politically active will, inevitably, be transformed into a political organization that was once religious….10 The engagement in the political battles influences the local church as well. For many, their politics informs their theology, which leads to sermons focused on politically charged “sins” of the day to the neglect of larger biblical issues, or in other words, found in today’s churches is the “political tail wagging the scriptural dog.”11 As stated earlier, the political divide has done more than just divide religion along denominational lines; it has divided denominations and churches. With all the time and resources dedicated to the political effort by Christians of both parties, what exactly has been accomplished by Christianity in politics? One could conclude, after seeing all the vitriol and compromise, that religion has suffered more than it would have if religious leaders were not so entangled in daily political decisions. Or perhaps, religion would have positively influenced politics if Christian leaders had remained prophetic in their involvement with politics, rather than participatory in the power struggle. As Carter states clearly: The prophet, facing a resisting world, must struggle with uncertainty and rejection. Through those struggles, the prophet learns humility—and perhaps reaches a richer version of truth. The one who wields the sword, however, struggles less, for he possesses the authority to force others to yield to his vision. Thus does the power of prophecy disappear.12 Certainly there is a place for religion in politics. After all, the Civil Rights movement was led by a reverend, but what are the appropriate boundaries? Specifically, what role should church leaders play in the political process? And how can Christians impact both the individual and society by remaining true to their callings? One of the ways we impact culture properly is through living lives of service rather than power. As Scot McKnight and Laura Barringer write in A Church Called Tov, “Toxic, flesh-driven cultures breed a lust for power, success, celebrity, control through fear, an emphasis
27 RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CIVIL DISCOURSE on authority, and demands for loyalty. … A Spirit-formed, Christlike culture, on the other hand, nurtures truth, offers healing for the wounded, seeks opportunities to show redemptive grace and love, focuses on serving others (rather than being served), and looks for ways to establish justice in the daily paths of life.” They go on to emphasize, “A Christlike church culture always has its eyes on people because the mission of the church is all about God’s redemptive love for people.”13 CONCLUSION In today’s world, one must not ignore issues of social injustice and public morality. In fact, Jesus calls his followers “the salt of the earth,” implying the need for Christians to engage the culture, preserve it, and make it better. However, as if to warn them of the dangers in the world, Jesus continues, “…but if the salt has become tasteless, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled under foot by men.”14 Christians are called by God to be a positive presence in the world, to bring about personal repentance and societal change, and to reach out to the outcasts of society. As seen in American history, Christians have attempted to accomplish these goals, sometimes alone and sometimes through the use of politics. In a few instances, such as the abolition of slavery and the Civil Rights movement, American Christians, along with other religious bodies, have successfully and prophetically impacted the government. Concerning other political issues, American Christians have seemingly lost more than they have gained from politics.15 The power politics provides greatly tempts religious idealists who believe society can be perfected through implementation of their beliefs. Participation with government often leads to heartache for the church: “At its best, faith in God has been used to hold the nation to divine accountability … But at its worst, biblical proof-texts to support ideological causes has made both religion and politics look bad.”16 Instead of developing a Christian hegemony, the mixture of Christianity and politics has caused increased dissension, not only among Christians and other groups, but within American Christianity as well. The Religious Right and the Social Gospel movement have sought to create a society that fully embraced Christian principles; however,
28 Ducere Est Servire: THE LEADERSHIP JOURNAL OF DALLAS BAPTIST UNIVERSITY issues related to Christianity are too narrow and private to ever be accepted as public norm. And that is a good thing. The faith offered by Christians is by definition asking one to believe in something that cannot be proven in the here and now. Where Christians in America have jeopardized their faith, be it liberals or conservatives, has been when they have attempted to compromise their doctrine in order to be accepted by more people for the purpose of holding on to political power. Instead of struggling to make religion appealing to more citizens by undermining or ignoring certain doctrines, pastors should equip their parishioners to allow their faith to take action in their world, thus offering the possibility to change not only individual hearts but the culture and society as well. The more Christians in America seek to gain political power and the more Christians are defined by their politics rather than their faith, the more irrelevant religion will become to American society, thus causing Christianity to lose its saltiness, and therefore, its purpose. Following convictions in a Christ-like way leads to more productive civility. Civility does not mean always agreeing or yielding to others, it involves the ability to disagree, but do so in a way that brings about better clarity and understanding, while, in a pluralistic society, seeking the common ground necessary to move forward as a community in a fallen world. As Christians, we should examine our intent behind our political debates. Is it to learn and grow or to demonize and wound? As Brooks phrases the question, “Am I about to use my values as a gift, or as a weapon to attack the other side? If you are about to use them as a weapon, stop. Find a way to use your values as a gift instead.”17 Our approach to civility must come from a place of humility and love, recognizing the humanity in those one disagrees with, and the fallibility in our own reasonings. That simple awareness will provide opportunities for productive discussions which seek to provide the common ground for our pluralistic society to continue to flourish.
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